Butterflies make frequent appearances in our gardens nonetheless generally it may presumably be extremely efficient to tell what they’re. Certain butterflies are instantly recognizable (like monarchs) whereas others are so similar-looking (whats up, swallowtail genus) that it’s onerous to pinpoint the exact species. And while you might assume you’ve merely seen a monarch with its placing coloration, it actually has just some copycats which is ready to throw you off!
There are moreover pretty yard moths that appear like butterflies, and customary butterflies which is perhaps so nondescript, people generally mistake them for moths.
So, the very very very very first thing it is vital know when looking for out the flutterby you see in your yard (as my family affectionately refers to these winged beauties) is…
Butterfly or moth?
Can you inform the excellence? Butterflies and moths belong to the family Lepidoptera and have delicate, patterned, and normally vibrant wings. The adults are usually seen feeding on the nectar out of your flowers, and every groups are important pollinators.
When butterflies and moths begin their lives as caterpillars, it’s onerous to discern one from the selection. Nonetheless as quickly as they metamorphose into flying bugs, their bodily variations develop into further apparent. You can usually inform butterflies and moths apart by checking just some key traits:
| Butterfly | Moth | |
| Antennae | Prolonged with a club-shaped end | Transient and feathery |
| Colors | Often very good | Often further camouflaged |
| Wing place | Closed and pointing up in resting place | Open and parallel to the physique in resting place |
| Pupal stage | Caterpillar makes a tough shell (chrysalis) | Caterpillar makes a fragile cocoon |
| Physique | Typically skinny | Typically thick, generally fuzzy |
| Put together | Typically via the day (diurnal) | Typically at night (nocturnal) |
Are you aware?
Moth species outnumber butterfly species just about tenfold (spherical 160.000 vs. spherical 18.000). On account of moths are usually duller in coloration, smaller, and fewer conspicuous, though, the butterflies are inclined to get the entire credit score rating score rating.
Once you’ve determined that the winged creature in your yard is, actually, a butterfly, see if it matches up with any of these widespread species.
Genus Papilio: the swallowtails
Jap tiger swallowtail (Papilio glaucus)
In case you occur to dwell inside {{the japanese}} United States or southeastern Canada, numerous the placing butterfly species you almost certainly can come all by in your yard is {{{the japanese}}} tiger swallowtail.
With a wingspan of as a lot as 5 1/2 inches and black-rimmed, good yellow wings lined in a tiger-stripe pattern, that is little query one in all many less complicated butterflies to search out out. It’s energetic from spring to fall and primarily likes woodlands. This being acknowledged, it’s not very fussy about which flowers it feeds on, so it might even be current in parks and backyards.
Caterpillar: Found on quite a few crops, along with these contained within the magnolia and rose family. It’s huge and inexperienced to brown, with distinguished eye spots on the side of the very best.
Are you aware?
A darkish brown coloration morph exists in female japanese swallowtails. In case you occur to see a brown one, it’s repeatedly a woman! In yellow specimens, you almost certainly can inform the excellence between women and men by the blue hue the latter has on her “tail.”
Western tiger swallowtail (Papilio rutulus)
No worries, westerners—you guys get a swallowtail as effectively! Actually, the western tiger swallowtail seems just about an an much like its japanese cousin at a glance, although the tiger stripe pattern on its wings differs barely.
The western swallowtail could also be found from as far north as southern British Columbia to as far south as Baja California in Mexico. It likes all kinds of habitats, notably these with a considerable quantity of moisture, and may usually stray into parks and gardens.
Caterpillar: Seems an much like that of {{{the japanese}}} tiger swallowtail; inexperienced or brown in coloration with eye spots. Host crops embody willow, ash, cottonwood, aspen, and pretty quite a few totally completely totally different timber.
Giant swallowtail (Papilio cresphontes)
Say whats as loads as an vital butterfly in North America! In distinction to its aforementioned cousins, the massive swallowtail is black with some yellow (pretty than yellow with some black). The males should buy a wingspan of almost 7 1/2 inches!
This species is current in lots of the US and former, with its differ principally forming a diagonal line from southern California to southeastern Canada. The species likes forested areas, nonetheless on account of it’s not very picky about nectar sources, you shouldn’t have an extreme quantity of bother getting it to go to your yard.
Caterpillar: Cream and brown marbling? Yep, there’s no methodology spherical it; it seems like hen poop.
Are you aware?
As pretty as they’re, giant swallowtails (or their caterpillars, anyway) are thought-about pests by citrus farmers. They merely love munching on any plant contained within the citrus family, along with these we develop for meals.
Black swallowtail (Papilio polyxenes)
The genus Papilio is the reward that retains on giving. I can’t even take into consideration the entire North American species right correct proper right here, to not stage out the engaging specimens current all through the the rest of the world! Let’s finish our take a look at this genus with the engaging black swallowtail, P. polyxenes.
As its resolve suggests, the wings of this swallowtail species are largely black in coloration. Every women and men attribute a pattern of yellow dots, although they’re further pronounced contained within the boys. The females have a splash of pale blue on their “tail.”
The black swallowtail has a selection, much like that of the aforementioned giant swallowtail nonetheless a bit further in depth. It’s found all the best strategy from southern Canada far into South America, with solely the northwestern US states being excluded.
Caterpillar: Typically often known as the parsley worm, on account of it likes crops contained within the parsley family and could also be found feeding on fennel, carrots, and quite a lot of totally completely totally different yard herbs. It’s inexperienced with black stripes and orange dots.
Genus Vanessa
Crimson admiral (Vanessa atalanta)
The genus Vanessa, furthermore typically known as the woman butterflies, is little query one in all many principally seen in backyards. Of its 22 members, the purple admiral (V. atalanta) is perhaps primarily most probably in all probability probably the most ceaselessly seen. With its darkish brown to black wings splashed with deep orange and dots of white, it’s undoubtedly onerous to miss!
The purple admiral has an infinite pure differ. It may presumably be found all via all america, along with lots of Canada, Mexico and virtually the entire thing of Europe. It likes woodlands, nonetheless as a consequence of it loves feeding on butterfly bushes and totally completely totally different yard flowers, it’s not troublesome to attract to your yard.
Caterpillar: Brown and spiky. It just about solely feeds on (stinging) nettle crops.
Are you aware?
Like one totally different butterfly species, the purple admiral is territorial. Males occupy perching spots and look forward to females to fly by. They defend their territories from intruders by making an attempt to outmaneuver them in a classy sort of flying dance.
Painted lady (Vanessa cardui)
Think about a purple admiral, nonetheless with the darkish coloration on its wings turned good orange. That’s the painted lady! This fantastically patterned species is little query most probably in all probability probably the most widespread butterflies, occurring virtually everywhere together with South America.
The painted lady is a migratory species that overwinters in warmth areas after which strikes to cooler zones when the native local weather permits it. Inside {the summertime} months, it may presumably be found all via the US. Like a number of the totally completely totally different species on this doc, it’s simple enough to attract to your yard, on account of it’s not picky about host and meals crops within the least.
Caterpillar: Brown and spiky with a as quickly as further stripe. It weaves a sort of silky nest spherical itself for canopy, making it simple to acknowledge.
American lady (Vanessa virginiensis)
No worries, you’re not seeing double: the American lady, Vanessa virginiensis, does look similar to its aforementioned painted lady cousin. As quickly as you almost certainly can inform these apart, you almost certainly can actually title your self an skilled at yard butterfly identification!
In case you occur to’re unsure which you’re dealing with, there are only a few indicators, though most of them are pretty refined. The most effective plan of motion is to attend until the butterfly you’ve seen closes its wings. V. virginiensis has two huge eyespots on the underside (ventral) side of the wings to confuse predators, whereas V. cardui has 4 tons smaller ones.
As its resolve suggests, the American lady butterfly could also be found all via temperate North America (in Hawaii, it’s an launched species). It moreover pops up in Macaronesia, the numerous Atlantic islands off the African coast. It likes open habitats the place crops contained within the daisy family, Asteraceae, could also be found.
Caterpillar: Spiky and with alternate darkish and light-weight bands, plus twin rows of white spots on its as quickly as further. It likes crops akin to pussytoes and cudweed.
Genus Polygonia: the commas
Question mark (Polygonia interrogationis)
Thought you seen a ineffective leaf, nonetheless it utterly turned out to be a butterfly with closed wings? An extreme quantity of butterflies have developed to seem like ineffective foliage after they’re at leisure, nonetheless the question mark (Polygonia interrogationis) may very well be very well-camouflaged. When it opens its wings, though, put collectively for an explosion of pretty orange-reddish tones.
Naturally found all via {{{the japanese}}} United States and into Mexico, this species lends its odd resolve from the tiny silver marking on the bottoms of its wings. It’s presupposed to look solely a bit like a question mark, although I’ve to admit I don’t pretty see it!
Question marks like woodland with some open residence. They’re not very fussy, avoiding nectar and largely feeding on “trash” (rotting fruit, dung, ineffective animals). This explains why they ceaselessly wander into parks and gardens, notably if there are fruit timber present.
Caterpillar: Reddish-brown with branched spikes. It eats quite a few crops, along with (false) nettles and elm.
Are you aware?
Butterfly look is sort of versatile. In a number of species, those that hatch in spring look completely totally completely totally different from those that hatch in late summer season season season. That is named seasonal dimorphism. “Summer season season season-form” question marks, as an illustration, sport a black shadow on the lower part of their wings.
Jap comma (Polygonia comma)
Certain, the members of the genus Polygonia truly are all named after punctuation marks. Most of them are often known as commas as a consequence of “C” sort of the small white mark on the underside of their wings. Notably widespread contained within the US is {{{the japanese}}} comma.
Found inside {{the japanese}} half of the nation and into the southeastern areas of Canada, {{{the japanese}}} comma (Polygonia comma) could also be troublesome to inform other than the aforementioned question mark (P. interrogationis). One completely totally different good strive in your butterfly identification experience!
Take a look on the wings after they’re closed: the small spot that gives these species their names is uninterrupted contained within the comma. Contained within the question mark, it has a tiny separated dot—like a question mark, get it?
{{{The japanese}}} comma appreciates moist areas the place water could also be found shut by, like streams, marshes and concrete ponds. Like its question mark cousin, it doesn’t truly feed on flowers. As an alternative, it prefers rotting fruit, tree sap, and dung.
Caterpillar: Terribly quite a few in coloration, so it may presumably be a bit extremely efficient to search out out. It has branched spines and could also be pale inexperienced, black with pale inexperienced appendages, and even half orange and half white. It eats quite a few crops, along with hops, nettle, and birch.
Genus Colias: the sulphurs
Orange sulphur (Colias eurytheme)
Most butterflies have camouflage colors on the bottoms of their wings, which suggests they seem far more vibrant when their wings are open than after they’re closed. With the orange sulphur, though, I merely can’t work out whether or not or not or not or not I much like the additional dramatic greater wing with its black margins or the pink-rimmed, good yellow underside further!
Found everywhere contained within the US, plus deep into Mexico and Canada, the orange sulphur is an peculiar yard butterfly. It naturally occurs in meadows and fields the place crops contained within the pea family Fabaceae could also be found, as that’s what their caterpillars eat. In case you occur to develop peas, alfalfa or comparable, they’re constructive to pop up in your yard.
Caterpillar: Thought-about a pest by alfalfa farmers. Clear and inexperienced with a light-weight stripe alongside the side of the physique.
Are you aware?
Relating to the alfalfa concern: apparently these butterflies used to occur solely contained within the western US. It’s thought that when individuals began huge scale alfalfa farming all through the US and former, this allowed them to develop their differ technique to the east.
Clouded sulphur (Colias philodice)
One completely totally different pretty sulphur butterfly species is the clouded sulphur, Colias philodice, which can be differentiated by its yellowish wings (pretty than the orange seen on the aforementioned C. eurytheme). Whereas they seem very comparable, the orange coloration on an orange sulphur is further obvious when it’s in flight. There’s moreover a white choice that occurs in females solely, often known as “alba” (which suggests “white” in Latin).
As with its orange sulphur cousin, the clouded sulphur’s caterpillars love crops contained within the pea family. The adults eat nectar from pretty quite a few totally completely totally different meadow flowers, along with dandelions, clover, and milkweed. Given how widespread these are as yard crops, it’s not troublesome to attract clouded sulphurs to your yard.
Caterpillar: Much like that of C. eurytheme. Inexperienced in coloration with a lighter side stripe, and feeds on crops contained within the pea family.
Are you aware?
Figuring out sulphur butterfly historic earlier and evolution has confirmed a bit bit little little little bit of a headache for scientists. The species contained within the genus Colias interbreed and hybridize steadily, making it very troublesome to find out how they’re interconnected.
Genus Limenitis: the admirals
Viceroy (Limenitis archippus)
Keep it up, is {{{{that a}}}} monarch butterfly? Nope! Nonetheless should you want to put your butterfly identification experience to the strive, telling a viceroy (Limenitis achippus) from a monarch (Danaus plexippus, talked about beneath “Miscellaneous Butterflies”) is a reasonably darn good place to start out out. Apart from one little wing stripe, some yellow dots, and a serious dimension distinction, they’re virtually an an comparable.
The similarity between the viceroy and the monarch is described as Müllerian mimicry, which is when two species which is perhaps every distasteful to predators evolve comparable seems. If a predator tries to eat a monarch and dislikes the type, it’s unlikely to aim a viceroy after that—and vice versa. This sample, every species win.
Viceroy butterflies are current in lots of the US (together with the westernmost states) plus parts of Canada and Mexico. They hang out in open fields, moist meadows, parks, and gardens, the place they feed on pretty quite a few flowers, fruit, aphid honeydew, dung, and additional.
Caterpillar: A sort of species that mimics hen poop (and does so pretty successfully, I would add). It has two “antennae” and feeds on timber contained within the willow family, which comprise the salicylic acid that gives the species its unpleasant sort.
Are you aware?
There are only a few totally completely totally different “royal” butterflies that appear like monarchs or viceroys. Most notable are the soldier butterfly (Danaus eresimus) and the queen butterfly (D. gilippus). In these species’ ranges, the viceroy is their co-mimic pretty than the monarch’s.
White admiral (Limenitis arthemis)
One butterfly that’s notably simple to search out out is the white admiral. Its black wings with placing white bands make it pretty onerous to miss! When the wings are closed, bands of orange spots develop into seen on the perimeters.
Found contained within the northern states all by Canada and as a lot as Alaska, white admiral butterflies like woodland edges and shaded parks. On account of they primarily eat rotting fruit pretty than nectar, they’re liable to pop up in your yard you nearly actually have fruit timber—in some other case you almost certainly can enchantment to them by leaving out a plate of leftover fruit.
Caterpillar: Mimics hen poop for canopy. It eats the leaves of timber contained within the willow family, notably some types of birches.
Crimson-spotted purple (Limenitis arthemis astyanax)
That’s the one butterfly on the doc that’s a subspecies. The red-spotted purple seems so completely totally completely totally different from the fastidiously related white admiral that it truly does deserve a spot of its private right correct proper right here. It’s attractive to aim to doesn’t even seem actual with its patterned wings in darkish shades of black and blue.
Very similar to the aforementioned viceroy, the red-spotted purple is a mimic. It’s not a Müllerian mimic (which is poisonous or has an unpleasant variety itself), though, nonetheless a Batesian mimic. This further widespread sort of mimicry incorporates a non-poisonous species evolving to seem like one which is poisonous, hoping that predators will fall for its seen bluff and go away it alone.
The red-spotted purple imitates the seems of the engaging blue swallowtail (Battus philenor), which occurs all through the an comparable pure differ contained within the southeastern US. It’s not the one one to take motion, each; pretty quite a few fellow swallowtails (genus Papilio) moreover mimic this species, and there’s even a moth that seems pretty comparable.
Crimson-spotted purples like shaded forest edges. The adults feed on some nectar, nonetheless need tree sap and rotting stuff like fruit and carrion. In case you will have gotten fruit timber, they’re liable to cross by means of your yard!
Caterpillar: Typical for the genus, making an attempt like hen droppings. It eats crops contained within the rose family Rosaceae, along with peach and cherry tree leaves.
Are you aware?
The white admiral and red-spotted purple’s pure ranges overlap contained within the Good Lakes home. Appropriate correct proper right here, hybrids between the two subspecies could also be found. There’s moreover a third subspecies, nonetheless that one solely occurs distant spherical Arizona and into Mexico.
Miscellaneous butterflies
Monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus)
You had been just about undoubtedly questioning as shortly as I used to be going to get spherical to discussing this iconic American species. Effectively, right correct proper right here it is! Acknowledged for its in depth migration pattern, the monarch butterfly occurs in just about your complete US. It strikes from the northern and central states right all the best way through which proper all the way down to Florida, California, and Mexico in fall. In spring, it goes all the best strategy as quickly as further up.
The monarch could also be pretty straightforward to acknowledge, though as I’ve talked about, it does look similar to its mimic, the smaller viceroy butterfly. It has a wingspan as a lot as 4 inches and is characterised by its orange “tiger-striped” wings, which attribute a pattern of white polka dots on the perimeters.
Caterpillar: Pretty much like that of some swallowtails, the monarch caterpillar has a striped pattern of pale inexperienced, black, and yellow. It may presumably be distinguished by its antennae. It solely feeds on milkweed crops contained within the genus Asclepias.
Are you aware?
Monarch butterflies’ good colors signal the reality that they variety horrible to most predators. The milkweed the caterpillars eat comprise foul-tasting toxins often known as cardiac glycosides.
Cabbage white (Pieris rapae)
Although the cabbage white is assumed to originate from the Mediterranean in Europe, it’d truly now be found all via lots of the world. This contains virtually all of North America. It’s thought the species’ big unfold was made potential by the reality that individuals now develop and eat cruciferous greens like cabbage and broccoli, their host plant, just about everywhere.
Cabbage whites are plain-looking nonetheless nonetheless simple to acknowledge. They’re small, reaching a most wingspan of barely under 2 inches, and white in coloration. The wings have black options which is perhaps further pronounced contained within the males. Two dots (further pronounced in females) develop into seen when the wings are open.
You’re very susceptible to find out cabbage whites in your yard, notably while you develop veggies contained within the cabbage family. Their caterpillars is mostly a bit bit little little little bit of a pest and are thought-about one in all many further widespread inexperienced caterpillars found on leafy crops.
Caterpillar: Usually generally often known as the imported cabbageworm. It’s small, inexperienced in coloration and barely velvety. It may presumably be found on cruciferous crops, generally in monumental numbers that set off big injury to commercially grown crops.
Mourning cloak (Nymphalis antiopa)
This has obtained to be one among my non-public favorites concerning seems. The mourning cloak butterfly has reddish-brown wings rimmed with blue dots and a placing cream-colored edge. With a wingspan of as a lot as 4 inches, it’s pretty a head-turner.
Frequent in every northern Eurasia and all of North America, notably the north, the mourning cloak notably likes mountainous habitats. Like one totally different butterfly species, the adults aren’t very eager on nectar. They like totally completely totally different sweet treats like tree sap, fallen fruits, and aphid honeydew.
Caterpillar: Spiky, black, and with a pattern of darkish orange-red dots on its as quickly as further. It feeds on quite a few crops, like willow, elm, and poplar, forming communal nests lined in silk for safety capabilities.
Spring azure (Celastrina ladon)
The butterfly genus Celastrina might also be typically known as the blues or azures. There are various completely totally completely totally different species, along with amount that occur in North America, nonetheless the spring azure (Celastrina ladon) is perhaps the most common.
Current in lots of the US together with the Texas house and some of Florida, spring azures are small butterflies that attain a most wingspan of decrease than 1 1/2 inches. The wings are a stunning pale metallic gray to blue in coloration.
Caterpillar: Compact, (pale) inexperienced, and distinctly segmented. It likes woody shrubs, notably dogwood.
Are you aware?
Along with the aforementioned question mark, cabbage white, and mourning cloak, the spring azure is little query one in all many earliest butterflies. It tends to look on the very first sunny days of spring.
Frequent wood nymph (Cercyonis pegala)
Aren’t butterflies with eyespots on their wings merely the suitable? Although they’re meant to confuse and intimidate predators into pondering the butterfly is larger than it actually is, they merely remind me of peacock feathers. The widespread wood nymph (Cercyonis pegala), which is a grayish-white in coloration nonetheless has placing eyespots, is an environment friendly occasion.
Found all via lots of the US together with the far southwest, the widespread wood nymph has a whopping 13 subspecies which is ready to all look completely totally completely totally different (um, not delicate within the least!). The double eyespots on the upper wing hold the an comparable, though.
This species is a fan of the nectar of quite a few fairly a couple of weeds, along with thistles, so it’s widespread in areas the place crops are left to develop wild. It’s usually seen in open woodland, meadows, prairies, and, actually, our backyards.
Caterpillar: Inexperienced in coloration and actually barely fuzzy. It feeds on pretty quite a few species of grass.
Frequent buckeye (Junonia coenia)
One completely totally different butterfly species with attractive eyespots is the widespread buckeye (Junonia coenia), which resides proof that camouflage colors don’t equal boring. With its whopping three spots and an intricate pattern of varied shades of (orange-ish) brown, this one’s pretty the looker.
The widespread buckeye is found all via lots of the US, excluding the northwest. It likes comparatively open habitats that attribute quite a few flowers to drink nectar from. It notably likes lantana, nonetheless would possibly even go for clovers and completely totally completely totally different thistle species.
Caterpillar: Moreover pretty pretty, as far as caterpillars go. It’s black and spiky, with refined lighter stripes working alongside the physique and some splashes of orange. It eats quite a few crops, notably these contained within the plantain family Plantaginaceae.
Cloudless sulphur (Phoebis sennae)
Keep it up, didn’t we already take into consideration the sulphurs a strategies as quickly as further? Effectively, as delicate on account of it’s, the widespread resolve “sulphur” is used for orange to yellow butterflies in quite a few genera contained within the family Pieridae (which moreover contains such butterflies on account of the cabbage white). We had a take a look at some species contained within the genus Colias, nonetheless this one, the cloudless sulphur, belongs to the genus Phoebis.
The cloudless sulphur, which is yellow in coloration with a sprinkling of pale pink dots, is found contained within the Americas as far south as Argentina and all the best strategy as a lot as southern Canada. Contained within the US, it’s largely widespread contained within the southern states, although you may need the ability to determine it further up north as effectively. It likes open areas with some water sources and in addition to will go to gardens.
Caterpillar: Inexperienced to yellowish with a peppering of large black dots. It features a pattern of blue on its sides and will have dark-colored bands. Its favorite meals (clover, sennas, and additional) are all contained within the pea family.
Gray hairstreak (Strymon melinus)
Is it a swallowtail? Nope! Although it has tiny “tails” on its wings, the gray hairstreak belongs to a very completely totally completely totally different family of butterflies. Its dimension presents it away: at a most wingspan of no more than 1 1/4 inches, it’s smaller than even the tiniest swallowtail.
The gray hairstreak is a placing butterfly to aim, with white-rimmed, powder blue to gray wings that attribute orange spots on the lower parts. It’s very unfussy about habitat, making it widespread in gardens. As long as there are flowers to extract nectar from, ideally tubular in type (the an comparable types of flowers that enchantment to hummingbirds), gray hairstreaks will come.
Caterpillar: Compact and barely fuzzy. It’s notably segmented and may differ in coloration from inexperienced to pinkish. Not very explicit about meals, although it does love clovers, mallows, and pretty quite a few species contained within the pea family.
Are you aware?
Like most totally completely totally different species contained within the family Lycaenidae, the gray hairstreak holds a selected relationship with ants. Their caterpillars excrete sweet honeydew, and since ants have an actual sweet tooth, they defend them aggressively. Usually they even carry the caterpillars spherical all through the occasion that they assume a selected spot isn’t safe enough!
One of the simplest ways throughout which to enchantment to butterflies to your yard
If it seems similar to the butterfly inhabitants in your yard is a bit low, there are a variety of strategies to get further of these winged beauties over for a go to. I cowl this in further ingredient in my knowledge to creating a butterfly yard, nonetheless the first concern is to produce them meals that’s merely accessible.
It doesn’t matter whether or not or not or not or not you’ve obtained huge acreage or a tiny balcony: planting just some weeds and nectar-rich flowers that native butterflies like is an environment friendly start. Try milkweed, or while you don’t ideas a non-native plant, a butterfly bush (Buddleia). I’ve seen the ladies (genus Vanessa) notably much like the latter.
Don’t neglect the caterpillars each. To allow butterflies to complete their full life cycle in your yard, you almost certainly can plant favorites like milkweed. Herbs like dill and fennel are moreover in variety amongst caterpillars.
Apart from holding meals sources spherical, there are a lot of little components you are able to do. Be sure there are sunny spots accessible for them to perch, clear water in a shallow dish, and presumably some fruit feeders. Stay away from using pesticides and, most importantly, don’t defend your yard too neat!
Sources:
Bitzer, R. J., & Shaw, Okay. C. (1995). Territorial habits of the purple admiral, Vanessa atalanta (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) I. The place of climatic parts and early interaction frequency on territorial start time. Journal of Insect Conduct, 8, 47-66.
Dwyer, H. E., Jasieniuk, M., Okada, M., & Shapiro, A. M. (2015). Molecular proof for hybridization in Colias (Lepidoptera: Pieridae): are Colias hybrids truly hybrids?. Ecology and Evolution, 5(14), 2865-2877.
Marshall, L. (1982). Male courtship persistence in Colias philodice and C. eurytheme (Lepidoptera: Pieridae). Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society, 729-736.
Ritland, D. B., & Brower, L. P. (1991). The viceroy butterfly should not be a Batesian mimic. Nature, 350(6318), 497-498.
Tabashnik, B. E. (1983). Host differ evolution: the shift from native legume hosts to alfalfa by the butterfly, Colias philodice eriphyle. Evolution, 150-162.